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Publication Over-Citing or Under-Citing? A GIS-based Analysis of the Relationship Between Crashes and Citations(2019-01-01) Page, MitchellIn July of 2017, the Boston Globe published an article titled “Driving Through These Towns in Mass.? Watch Your Speed” [1] that among other elements, included a series of maps and a brief summary identifying Massachusetts municipalities that had the most traffic violations issued between 2010 and 2016. The article stated that the Massachusetts State Police issued the most citations of any police agency in the state, and that many citations were given along major highways, especially Interstate 90 and major highways and routes that intersect it, such as Interstate 84 and Route 20. Despite the public attention-grabbing nature of the article, and the implication that traffic citations are being used as a mechanism of revenue generation, the article stops short of discussing the different types of citations, or the resulting roadway safety trends in those same areas.Publication DRIVER PERFORMANCE DUE TO UNMANNED AERIAL SYSTEM APPLICATIONS IN THE VICINITY OF SURFACE TRANSPORTATION(2019-01-01) Ryan, Alyssa M.Unmanned aerial systems (UAS), or drones, have become increasingly utilized for a myriad of applications in the vicinity of the roadway and can offer a low-cost alternative to many labor-intensive data collection techniques, including infrastructure inspection, roadway marking data collection, and more. To collect much of this data with a desired degree of accuracy, UAS must be flown near moving vehicles, pedestrians, and/or bicyclists. However, UAS, and their pilot/crew, have the potential to be a distraction to drivers. A study by Hurwitz et al. suggests that UAS operations are more distracting to drivers as the UAS traverses closer to the roadway laterally. Through a combined literature review and full-immersion driver simulator study, this study furthered the current state-ofthe-literature and investigated the potential for UAS to be flown near roadways in the future as well as potential safety implications of those circumstances. Specifically, driver performance due to drone height and the presence of drone operators was evaluated. The literature synthesis portion of this research revealed that UAS flights in the vicinity of roadways will continue to increase. The results of the driving simulation study showed that participants were more visually distracted in situations where the pilot and drone were both present compared to the drone only. Further, in 11% of all analyzed situations, participants were critically visually distracted (continuous glance of two seconds or more) by the drone or pilots. Ultimately, this research provides recommendations to policymakers for creating regulations on the use of drones in the vicinity of roadways.Publication DRIVER BEHAVIOUR AND PERFORMANCES ON IN-VEHICLE DISPLAY BASED SPEED COMPLIANCE(2019-01-01) Parthasarthy, Aamani RamanathanTraffic Control Devices (TCDs) are integral to driver-to-infrastructure (D2I) and vehicleto- infrastructure (V2I) interactions. The non-conformation (or non-perception) with signage on the part of the driver leads to several compounded safety problems. The need exists for a more robust, low-cost, and user-centric mechanism of delivering information to the driver that can directly bear on the safety of the driver. Technology has now advanced to the point where we can deliver information from a real-world physical environment to the driver in a non-invasive manner using holographic display [1]. With this rapid advancement in-vehicle display (IVD) technology, the transportation industry must undergo a transition period before entering the world of connected and autonomous vehicles. Here, the integration of IVD in vehicles will play major role. The advantage here is the level of flexibility and control offered by dynamic IVD which allows us to provide very specific traffic control information to the driver at situations and epochs deemed appropriate. The research questions will be focused on how such safety-critical traffic control information (and what specific information) can be delivered effectively to the driver using dynamic IVD without causing any form of distraction or engagement related problems. Vehicles exceeding the posted speed limit present an optimal application. In regards to the hierarchy of TCDs, there is an urgent need for drivers to comply to speed limits. According to NHTSA, 26% of traffic fatalities in 2017 resulted from crashes where at least one of drivers’ was speeding [2]. In addition to this, the act of unintentional speeding has been identified in research as the most frequent driving violation [3]. This forms the primary objective, which is to investigate the driver behavior and compliance to IVD speed alerts. This research investigates the characteristics of visual cues that minimize the drivers’ perception time without adding to the redundant visual clutter at the same time accounting the safety aspects required in a driving environment. This research endeavor evaluated drivers in a controlled environment using a full-scale driving simulator with active in-vehicle displays and eye-tracking equipment. The experiment investigated driving parameters such as head/eye movements, vehicle handling measures, task-engagement behaviors, and physiological parameters. Ultimately, the goal of this study was to understand driver sign compliance with the implementation of IVD in the driving simulator environment. The results were helpful to gain a better understanding of drivers’ responsiveness depending on the nature of the cue.Publication ZERO-EMISSION TRANSIT BUS AND REFUELING TECHNOLOGIES AND DEPLOYMENT STATUS: A REVIEW ACROSS U.S. TRANSIT AGENCIES(2018-01-01) Deliali, AikateriniGlobally there have been considerable efforts of decarbonizing the transportation sector, as it has been found to be largely responsible for greenhouse gases and other air pollutants. One strategy to achieving this is the implementation of zero-emission buses in transit fleets. This paper summarizes the characteristics of three zero-emission bus technologies: 1) battery electric buses; 2) fuel cell battery electric buses; and 3) fuel cell plug-in hybrid electric buses. All of these technologies do not produce tailpipe emission and can potentially be emission-free in a well-to-wheel content, depending on the fuel source. This study aims in gathering the needed information for transitioning to zero- emission buses in transit fleets, providing insights from implementations across U.S. Data collection efforts consists of three approaches: a systematic literature review emphasizing on reports released by transit agencies and other relevant organizations, an online survey of several transit agencies that have implemented or are planning to implement zero- emission buses, and interviews with transit agency representatives. Overall, the collected information was used to identify performance measures, cost characteristics, emission savings, and fuel economy, as well as implementation approaches and refueling strategies. A comparison among the three technologies and conventional fuels (diesel, compressed natural gas) suggests that zero-emission buses outperform in fuel economy compared to conventional fleets, but their capital cost is still higher than the cost of a diesel or a compressed natural gas bus. Battery electric buses have been chosen by the majority of transit agencies and present the highest fuel efficiency among the three zero emission technologies. Challenges associated with the implementation of such vehicles and lessons learned are also summarized. Commonly admitted among all agencies is that for a smooth transition to zero-emission fleet it is important to fully understand the technology and its requirements while starting with a small number of buses should be preferred and eventually increase the size. Further, it is critical for the staff to receive a proper training about the new technology and finally, all the involved stakeholders should maintain a good communication among them that would allow for efficient troubleshooting and information exchange.Publication A Safety and Emissions Analysis of Continuous Flow Intersections(2018-01-01) Wolfgram, JoshuaIncreasing travel demand, and challenges associated with high percentages of left-turning vehicles, have encouraged the introduction of significant infrastructure advancements. Certain alternative intersection designs, such as continuous flow intersections, median U-turns, and jughandles, eliminate the traditional protected left-turn, increasing the intersection's optional efficiency. While the design and operations of these intersection types have been studied to varying degrees, their safety and emissions-related impacts are not well-understood. This project develops a series of microsimulation models for two continuous flow intersections (CFI) located in Missouri and Colorado, and uses the Surrogate Safety Assessment Model (SSAM) to determine the impact of those designs on the location and type of conflicts compared to conventional signalized intersections. Additionally, an emissions model, CMEM, was used in the analysis of the Colorado study site to determine whether CFIs have the potential to reduce emissions compared to conventional signalized intersections. As hypothesized, the number of total conflicts did decrease upon installation of a CFI for both study sites, despite lane-change conflicts experiencing an insignificant increase at the Loveland, CO study site. While too small of a sample size to provide a definite validation of SSAM, these results show SSAM can accurately predict the types of conflicts likely to occur as well as indicate a reduction in total vehicle conflicts when a conventional signalized intersection is converted into a CFI. Emission rates per mile at the CFI were lower than those at a conventional signalized intersection, most likely due to fewer total stops and lower delay times for users. The CMEM analysis was repeated for four other volume scenarios, varying left-turn demand. Under all scenarios, the CFI performed better than the conventional signalized intersection. This improvement increased as volume increased, showing that the environmental performance of a CFI is less sensitive to demand than a conventional signalized intersection. This project set forth to quantify sustainability benefits to the installation of a CFI for practitioners. Ultimately, this research can aid transportation decision-makers by providing quantitative evidence that CFIs can improve the safety impacts for vehicle users and environmental impacts for the general population in both rural and urban applications.Publication EVALUATING ROADWAY CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN ELEMENTS AND ITS IMPACT ON DRIVER BEHAVIOR USING A DRIVING SIMULATOR(2016-01-01) Gongalla, BhavanaThis research explores the relationship between the cross-sectional design elements and the impact on selected driver attributes such as speed profiles and lateral positioning. In this experiment a traditional collector type base roadway of 1.5 miles with 14 ft travel lane and 8 ft shoulder was modeled using a fixed base driving simulator. The base scenario was subsequently reconfigured with four different cross-sectional design with various elements within the same physical right-of-way. Specific design elements included, narrower lanes, bicycle lanes, raised center median and a curvilinear roadway profile. A within subject’s design of twenty participants who drove each of the five developed scenarios, which were presented in a counterbalanced fashion to mitigate any potential order effect. Participants’ speed and lateral position was recorded throughout each of the drives. Across the virtual scenarios the same performance measures were analyzed by comparing data at each of five controlled collection points (checkpoints). Analysis of experiment results was performed using both descriptive and inferential statistical tests of speed and lateral position data. vii The obtained results show that the mean participants’ speed was higher than the posted speed limit in all scenarios, except the for the curvilinear profile scenario. There was no statistically significant difference in speeds between the base scenario (Sc1), narrower lane width (Sc2), bicycle lane (Sc3) and raised median (Sc4); however, for curved scenario (Sc5), the difference in speeds were statistically significant. There were significant differences in lateral position between the scenarios across the checkpoints. Overall, the results suggest that narrower lanes, or bicycle lanes, or raised median has no significant influence on reducing the speed. Nevertheless, narrower lanes have influence on maintaining the vehicle lateral position towards the center lane.Publication Understanding the Impacts of Ramp Configuration on Commercial Motor Vehicle Rollover Crashes(2016-01-01) Mártai, BalázsCommercial Motor Vehicle (CMV) rollover crashes are a major public safety concern in the United States. 52 percent of large truck occupant deaths in 2011 occurred in crashes in which their vehicles rolled over. This thesis aims to provide an improved understanding of how ramp configurations and driver characteristics impact the likelihood of a rollover crash. Specifically, this thesis includes 1.) an analysis of CMV crash data at on- and off-ramps from 2005 to 2013; 2.) an equivalent property damage only (EPDO) clustering analysis of all CMVs from 2013 to 2014 using geographic information system (GIS) software; 3.) a linear clustering crash analysis of both CMV and non-CMV rollover crashes from 2007 to 2012. All of the data and analyses were for crashes which took place in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The analysis of all on- and off-ramp crashes had a sample size of 2,149 crashes, resulting in an even split of crashes across all age groups. 79.3 percent of ramp crashes occurred in daylight conditions, and 78.9 percent of crashes took place on dry pavement. 35.6 percent of crashes did not have a reported driver contributing code, which leaves a huge gap in determining recurring human factors. A different analysis of the same data looked at only rollover crashes, consisting of a sample of 111 crashes. Rollovers occurred evenly across all age groups. 63.2 ii percent of vehicles which rolled over had a gross vehicle weight rating over 26,000 pounds, the highest classification for all vehicles. 80.2 percent of crashes occurred in daylight conditions, and the roadway was dry in 91.0 percent of instances. 47.7 percent of drivers were observed to be speeding, compared to the overall average of 4.7 percent. 49.5 percent of rollovers took place on free-flow loops and 3.6 percent occurred on diamond ramps. The large percentage of rollovers on free-flow loops are a result of the continuous curvature changes that are present at these ramps. Diamond ramps, on the other hand, are mostly linear with minimal curvature, leading to a lower crash rate. The EPDO clustering using GIS used a sample of 2013 and 2014 data involving all commercial motor vehicle crashes. The geo-statistical analysis shows that urbanized locations with dense populations and high traffic volumes are the most likely to encounter CMV crashes. This data sample had 49 rollovers, resulting in 2 fatal injuries and 12 injury crashes. 9 towns had two rollover crashes, including the town or Revere, which showed up as a high z-score location on the GIS map. Further analysis revealed that two rollovers occurred at the same rotary at the same time. Overall, the mapping of these rollover crashes does not give any obvious answers as to which locations should be improved because the sample size is too small and the sample area is too large. The linear clustering analysis resulted in 27 rollover data points; 17 of these had useful driver data and 5 had additional citation data. 16 of these drivers were male, 14 were between the ages of 30 and 59, and 3 of the operators were unlicensed. All but one of the trucks weighed over 26,000 pounds, and the majority of crashes occurred during daylight hours on dry pavement. 10 of the crashes were a direct result of driver error, while 4 crashes did not have a record of this information. iii The completion of research tasks within the framework of this thesis achieved the overall objective of providing insight on ramp types and crash data statistics of vehicle and driver demographics. Sex, age, roadway lighting, unfavorable road conditions and inclement weather were non-influencing factors in the vast majority of these crashes. Driver error seen in vehicles over 26,000 pounds is by far the most noticeable cause. Moving forward, the insights established within this thesis may prove useful in the establishment of target locations and specific countermeasures.Publication INVESTIGATION OF SAFETY AT TOLL PLAZAS THROUGH MICROSIMULATION AND DRIVING SIMULATION APPROACHES(2017-01-01) Hajiseyedjavadi, Foroogh SadatToll plazas are one of the critical components of a roadway system for capital financing, infrastructure maintenance revenue, or traffic maintenance and congestion control strategies. At the same time, they are among the most complex road structures, as drivers are exposed to a large amount of information and have a short amount of time to make a decision. Since the advent of electronic toll collection (ETC) technology, the complexity of toll plazas has greatly increased. The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of toll plaza design and traffic conditions on drivers’ behavior and level of safety. This study contains two approaches: (1) a microsimulation study using VISSIM and the Surrogate Safety Assessment Model (SSAM); and (2) a driving simulation study. The microsimulation model was calibrated and validated using traffic data from recorded video at the West Springfield toll plaza, Massachusetts, connecting Interstate 90 to Interstate 91 and State Route 5. Distribution of traffic volumes, stop delays at cash lanes, and reduced speed distribution at electronic toll collection (ETC) lanes were used as vii calibration variables, and the number of conflicts was used as a validation parameter. Results identified that the safest lane configuration was the one consisting of only ETC lanes, and the second-safest configurations were the ones that grouped ETC lanes and separated them from cash lanes. In the second part of the study, a simulation model of the same toll plaza was created to be used in a fixed-base driving simulator with a 150 degree field of view. The objective of this part of the study was to investigate drivers’ behavior when they are exposed to different lane configurations and traffic conditions at toll plazas. Independent variables of this study were lane configuration (i.e., which lanes were signed as “E-ZPass” and “Cash”), origin-destination of the subject vehicle (i.e., right or left origin ramp, right or left destination ramp), traffic queue (i.e., having a queue or not), traffic composition (i.e., having a leading heavy vehicle or not), and customer type (i.e., cash or E-ZPass). The result of this simulation study was expected to give a better understanding of drivers’ behavior at toll plazas and might lead to safer toll plaza designs.Publication ACCOUNTING FOR BICYCLING EXPERIENCE AND FAMILIARITY IN EVALUATING BICYCLE INFRASTRUCTURE SAFETY(2019-01-01) Fournier, Nicholas M.Bicycling as a utilitarian mode of transportation is one of the most sustainable and cost effective modes available. Despite these benefits it is also among the least utilized transportation modes in the United States. Among the many barriers preventing people from bicycling, such as weather, physical ability, cargo requirements, transport of children, social stigmas, etc., studies have found that at least 40 percent of people feel that safety is the greatest barrier preventing them from bicycling (Sanders and Cooper, 2012; Sanders, 2013). Particularly in dense urban areas where bicycling is especially poised for success it is also the most dangerous, with urban areas accounting for approximately 69 percent of the bicyclists' fatalities every year (Zegeer et al., 2015). Mitigating this also goes beyond simple midblock treatments (e.g., bike lanes) with approximately 75 percent of all bicycle-vehicle crashes occurring at intersections in Massachusetts between 2011 and 2014 (University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2017). This reflects the importance of researching both midblock treatments as well as intersection-specfic bicycle infrastructure treatments to improve safety. To date there is a substantial amount of research investigating bicyclist behavior and safety at such innovative treatments from the bicyclists' perspective. However, little research has been conducted from the drivers' perspective towards bicycle infrastructure. There is a need to investigate driver behavior at innovative and unfamiliar bicycle infrastructure treatments in order to better evaluate and design these treatments to achieve safe operations for all users. The objective of this research is to provide an in-depth analysis of driver behavior when approaching new and unfamiliar bicycle infrastructure treatments. The focus is on cases where the driver is not directly interacting with bicyclists to determine unprovoked driving behavior near bicycle infrastructure treatments. The particular treatments investigated are sharrows, bike lanes, bike boxes, and bike merge lanes. This research utilizes a driving simulator, eye tracker, and questionnaires to determine whether any patterns, or causalities exist between infrastructure and driver behavior. The benefit of laboratory simulation allows for not only the measurement of driver behavior, but also survey of their background through questionnaires. This combined information provides insights into how driver experience as a bicyclist and exposure to bicycle infrastructure can affect driver behavior.Publication DISSECTING THE SAFETY BENEFITS OF PROTECTED INTERSECTION DESIGN FEATURES(2019-01-01) Campelll, NicholasProtected intersections are an integral component of Complete Street networks and are used to facilitate and delineate the route cyclists should take while traveling along a protected network. The separation from the travel lane of automobiles, however, causes a decrease in driver attentiveness to cyclists. Rates of incidents of cyclists, specifically with right turning vehicles, have increased in recent years, leading to a desire to improve the safety benefits of existing protected intersections to increase the visibility of cyclists and driver awareness. This research used a simulated environment to test the effectiveness of different pavement markings and intersection radii on the speed and attentiveness of drivers. Participants were recruited to drive twelve scenarios in a simulated world and their speed, position, braking behavior, and glance pattern were analyzed to determine what combination of variables leads to the highest increase of safe interactions between cyclists and automobiles in a protected intersection. A speed and regression analysis were conducted to determine which variables influenced participants speeds the greatest, thereby improving the level of safety in the intersection. It was found that the size of the protected elements, the presence of a cyclist, and a participant’s gender were all significant in influencing the speed at which drivers navigated the intersection (p<0.05) for right turns. The slowest speeds were recorded when a larger intersection radius was used in conjunction with a dashed white line through the protected intersection, suggesting that the combination of those two variables are effective in improving the level of safety for cyclists and motorists in a protected intersection.Publication PASSENGER DETECTION THOUGH VIDEO PROCESSING AND SIGNAL SENSORS IN THE BOSTON SUBWAY TO ADDRESS LEFT-BEHIND PASSENGERS(2018-01-01) Keklikoglou, AndronikosCrowding is one the most common problems for public transportation systems worldwide. It has been proven to cause anxiety to commuters and create reliability problems when commuters are not able to board on the first train or bus that arrives. These commuters are referred as left-behind passengers, and their number is directly related to various basic performance measures of public transportation systems that represent the user’s experience. Among these measures the most significant are ridership, service quality and, more importantly, travel time. Identifying left behind passengers is a tool to address crowding in stations and respond appropriately, by applying various operational strategies such as decreasing headways. The methodology proposed in this study has been applied to two stations with high probability of left behind passengers, Sullivan Square and North Station on the MBTA Orange Line in Boston, Massachusetts. Two types of technologies were used to detect passengers being left behind in the platform. The first one was an object detection software, namely You Only Look Once (YOLO), using surveillance cameras. The second type was a Bluetooth and Wi-Fi sensor mounted on the two selected stations. Moreover, manual counts of left behind passengers were collected in the two stations. Both technologies will be individually compared with the manual counts to test accuracy and precision. Finally, the two technologies are compared with the manual counts to determine a best way to detect left behind passengers.Publication Data Driven Analysis of Quality of Service and Demand for Demand Responsive Transportation Systems(2019-01-01) Italiano, Justin A.This project investigates quality of service measures, specifically on-time performance (OTP), and the potential effects on passenger demand of using ridesourcing to accommodate Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) paratransit trips for demand responsive transportation systems. A data driven approach is used to analyze just over three years of trip data from the Pioneer Valley Transit Authority (PVTA) to study the effects on the overall system performance and the delays experienced by passengers resulting from a decision to split the demand responsive transit fleet into separate fleets for customers with disabilities and senior citizens who would not otherwise qualify for ADA service. Similar methods were then applied to ADA paratransit trip data from the Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority (MBTA). While there is a general trend between how busy a service is and how much delay there is, this research demonstrates that there are too many factors influencing delay day-to-day to create a reliable delay model. Additionally, the PVTA data demonstrates that efficiency is lost when vehicles within a fleet are restricted to only cover certain trips on the network. The last part of the project involves analyzing the effect of ridesourcing on paratransit demand. The MBTA is experimenting with a program that allows ADA paratransit customers to choose ridesourcing services such as Uber and Lyft for a limited number of subsidized trips. Data from participants in this pilot program was studied to better understand how their travel demand patterns have changed as a result of the pilot program. Ridesourcing for some passengers does effect travel behaviors and it was observed in the data that a passenger’s need for a wheelchair accessible van can be used to predict how ridesourcing will affect their paratransit travel behavior.Publication MODELLING THE SURROGATE SAFETY OF VARIOUS LEFT-TURN PHASE SEQUENCES(2019-01-01) Panthangi, Rohith PrakashLeft-turns are the most complex maneuvers in a signalized intersection. Based on the flow of the traffic volume through a given intersection, the left-turn phasing may be controlled in various fashions such as: protected only, permissive only, and protected/permissive. Following the introduction of the flashing yellow arrow (FYA) to the 2009 Edition of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), many state agencies have implemented these indications for their left-turn permissive movements. Similar to the existing circular green (CG) permissive indication, the FYA requires drivers to yield to oncoming vehicles before making their left-turn. However, given the novelty of these traffic control devices there is a lack of standardization when it comes to the transition between protected and permissive left-turn phasing. A need exists to evaluate the surrogate safety of their implementation through a means of microsimulation evaluation. This research endeavor aims to model various protected-permissive left-turn (PPLT) phase sequences in the FHWA Surrogate Safety Assessment Model (SSAM). Both the FYA and circular green permissive left-turn indications will be implemented in VISSIM microsimulation models. Further, the phase sequencing for each permissive indication will comprise of two sequence options upon transitioning between protected and permissive left-turns; transitioning with and without the all-red clearance interval. Ultimately, this investigation will yield results to develop guidance for practitioners in designing the signal sequencing with PPLT phasing, particularly with the newly introduced FYA traffic control device.Publication OLDER DRIVER SIMULATOR BASED INTERSECTION TRAINING: THE EVALUATION OF TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS AND SIMULATOR SICKNESS(2015-01-01) Schneider, CraigOlder drivers are over involved in intersection crashes. The evidence to date suggests that this is primarily because they fail to look for potential threat vehicles after they enter a stop-controlled intersection. These secondary glances are absolutely critical when the built or natural environment obscures such vehicles while the driver is stopped before entering the intersection. Simulator-based older driver training programs exist which double the frequency of secondary glances that older drivers take up to two years after training. However, almost 40% of those who participate in such training never finish because of Simulator Adaptation Syndrome (SAS, or “simulator sickness”). Two factors are believed to contribute to the high simulator sickness rates: 1) the relatively high immersion at each point in time and 2) the relatively long period of time over which the training occurs in the simulator. In this experiment, simulator micro-scenarios were designed to train older drivers to take secondary looks. These micro-scenarios take no more than 30 to 45 seconds to complete and are much shorter than the 20 minute training programs now available. In addition, level of immersion was varied, from relatively low (the virtual world was projected onto three 22'' diagonal LCD monitors) to medium (the virtual world was projected onto one to three 60'' screens). A total of five groups of older drivers (91 total between the ages of 67 and 86) were run in the experiment. Three of the groups were given active, secondary glance training on a driving simulator -- one on a low-immersion simulator and two on a medium-immersion simulator (one group utilized all three screens and one group utilized only one screen) -- one of the groups was given passive, secondary glance training using a PowerPoint presentation and one of the groups received no training at all, control group. After the training was delivered participants in all five groups were evaluated in the field while driving alone in their own vehicle as they wore a head mounted camera. Secondary glances were recorded from the videos of the drives captured by the camera. The simulator training dropout rate was reduced radically from what has been reported in the literature (roughly 40%), to 14.3% in the three screen medium-immersion simulator, 6.3% in the one screen medium-immersion simulator and 11.8% in the low-immersion simulator. The percentage of secondary glances in the field increased significantly for the group given active, 3-screen medium-immersion simulator training (82%) above those given passive, PowerPoint training (69%) and those who received no training, control group (42%). There was no statistically significant difference between the group given active, low-immersion simulator training (74%) and the group given passive, PowerPoint training; however, statically significance exists between the three active training groups and the 1-screen medium immersion simulator training (58%). It is clear that the design of micro-scenarios in a lower immersion environment decreased simulator sickness and increased the frequency of secondary glances.